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Chicken & Beef Recall for Salmonella!!

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Domesticated subspecies of bird

"Cockadoodledoo" and "Cocka-doodle-doo" redirect here. For the nursery rhyme, meet Cock a doodle doo.

Chicken
Male and female chicken sitting together.jpg
A rooster (left) and hen (right) perching on a roost

Conservation condition

Domesticated

Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Galliformes
Family: Phasianidae
Genus: Gallus
Species:

Thou. domesticus

Binomial proper name
Gallus domesticus

(Linnaeus, 1758)
GLW 2 global distributions of c) chickens.tif
Chicken distribution

The chicken (Gallus domesticus) is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl, with attributes of wild species such as grey and ceylon junglefowl[i] that are originally from Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an developed male bird, and a younger male may exist chosen a cockerel. A male that has been castrated is a capon. An developed female bird is called a hen and a sexually young female is called a pullet.

Originally raised for cockfighting or for special ceremonies, chickens were not kept for food until the Hellenistic period (fourth–2nd centuries BC).[2] [3] Humans at present keep chickens primarily as a source of food (consuming both their meat and eggs) and as pets.

Chickens are one of the most mutual and widespread domestic animals, with a full population of 23.7 billion equally of 2018[update],[4] up from more than 19 billion in 2011.[five] In that location are more chickens in the world than any other bird.[5] There are numerous cultural references to chickens – in myth, sociology and organized religion, and in language and literature.

Genetic studies have pointed to multiple maternal origins in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East asia,[six] but the clade plant in the Americas, Europe, the Eye East and Africa originated from the Indian subcontinent. From ancient Republic of india, the chicken spread to Lydia in western asia Minor, and to Hellenic republic past the 5th century BC.[7] Fowl have been known in Egypt since the mid-15th century BC, with the "bird that gives nascency every day" having come up from the state betwixt Syria and Shinar, Babylonia, according to the annals of Thutmose III.[8] [nine] [x]

Terminology

An adult male is a called a erect or (in the United States) a rooster and an adult female person is called a hen.[11] [12]

Other terms are:

  • Biddy: a newly hatched chicken[13] [14]
  • Capon: a castrated or neutered male chicken[a]
  • Chick: a young chicken[15]
  • Chook : a craven (Australia/New Zealand, informal)[16]
  • Cockerel: a young male craven less than a year erstwhile[17]
  • Dunghill fowl: a chicken with mixed parentage from different domestic varieties.[18]
  • Pullet: a immature female chicken less than a year old.[19] In the poultry manufacture, a pullet is a sexually immature chicken less than 22 weeks of age.[20]
  • Yardbird: a chicken (southern Usa, dialectal)[21]

Craven was originally a term only for an young, or at least young, bird.[ when? ] However, thanks to its usage on restaurant menus, it has at present become the most common term for the subspecies in general, peculiarly in American English. In older sources, chicken as a species were typically referred to as common fowl or domestic fowl.[22]

Chicken may also hateful a chick (meet for instance Hen and Chicken Islands).[23]

Etymology

According to Merriam-Webster, the term rooster (i.east. a roosting bird) originated in the mid- or late 18th century equally a euphemism to avoid the sexual connotation of the original English cock,[24] [25] [26] and is widely used throughout North America. Roosting is the action of perching aloft to sleep at dark.[27]

General biology and habitat

In near breeds the adult rooster can be distinguished from the hen by his larger comb.

Chickens are omnivores.[28] In the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects, and fifty-fifty animals as large as lizards, small-scale snakes,[29] or sometimes young mice.[thirty]

The boilerplate chicken may live for five–10 years, depending on the breed.[31] The world'south oldest known chicken lived sixteen years according to Guinness Globe Records.[32]

Diagram of a craven skull.

Eggs from unlike breeds

Roosters tin can usually exist differentiated from hens by their striking feather of long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks ('hackles') and backs ('saddle'), which are typically of brighter, bolder colours than those of females of the aforementioned breed. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the aforementioned colour equally the hen's. The identification tin be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male person'due south legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids, the male person and female person chicks may be differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads chosen a comb, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the caput and throat are chosen caruncles. Both the adult male and female person have wattles and combs, but in nearly breeds these are more prominent in males. A 'muff' or 'bristles' is a mutation constitute in several craven breeds which causes extra feathering under the chicken's face, giving the advent of a bristles.[33]

Domestic chickens are not capable of long-distance flying, although lighter chickens are generally capable of flying for short distances, such as over fences or into copse (where they would naturally roost). Chickens may occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do and so merely to flee perceived danger.

Behavior

Hen with chicks, Portugal

Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communal approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a 'pecking society', with dominant individuals having priority for food access and nesting locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social guild until a new pecking guild is established. Adding hens, especially younger birds, to an existing flock tin can pb to fighting and injury.[34]

When a rooster finds nutrient, he may call other chickens to swallow first. He does this by clucking in a high pitch too every bit picking up and dropping the food. This behaviour may also exist observed in female parent hens to phone call their chicks and encourage them to swallow.

A rooster's crowing is a loud and sometimes shrill call and sends a territorial signal to other roosters.[35] Notwithstanding, roosters may as well crow in response to sudden disturbances within their surroundings. Hens cluck loudly afterward laying an egg, and too to phone call their chicks. Chickens also give different warning calls when they sense a predator budgeted from the air or on the basis.[36]

Crowing

Roosters almost always start crowing before four months of historic period. Although it is possible for a hen to crow equally well, crowing (together with hackles development) is one of the clearest signs of beingness a rooster.[37]

Rooster crowing contests

Rooster crowing contests, also known every bit crowing contests, are a traditional sport in several countries, such as Germany, the netherlands, Belgium,[38] the United States, Indonesia and Nippon. The oldest contests are held with longcrowers. Depending on the breed, either the duration of the crowing or the times the rooster crows within a certain time is measured.

Courtship

To initiate courtship, some roosters may dance in a circumvolve around or near a hen (a 'circle trip the light fantastic toe'), often lowering the wing which is closest to the hen.[39] The trip the light fantastic triggers a response in the hen[39] and when she responds to his 'call', the rooster may mount the hen and go on with the mating.

More specifically, mating typically involves the following sequence:

  1. Male approaching the hen
  2. Male pre-copulatory waltzing
  3. Male person waltzing
  4. Female crouching (receptive posture) or stepping aside or running away (if unwilling to copulate)
  5. Male person mounting
  6. Male treading with both feet on hen's back
  7. Male person tail bending (post-obit successful copulation)[40]

Nesting and laying behaviour

Craven eggs vary in colour depending on the breed, and sometimes, the hen, typically ranging from bright white to shades of chocolate-brown and even blue, green, light pinkish and recently reported purple (constitute in Southward Asia) (Araucana varieties).

Chicks before their first outing

Hens volition often try to lay in nests that already incorporate eggs and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own. The outcome of this behaviour is that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every bird. Hens volition often express a preference to lay in the same location. It is not unknown for two (or more than) hens to try to share the same nest at the same time. If the nest is small, or 1 of the hens is particularly determined, this may result in chickens trying to lay on meridian of each other. At that place is testify that individual hens prefer to exist either alone or gregarious nesters.[41]

A chick sitting in a person's hand

Broodiness

Under natural conditions, about birds lay only until a clutch is consummate, and they will then incubate all the eggs. Hens are so said to "go broody". The broody hen will stop laying and instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually virtually 12 eggs). She will sit or 'prepare' on the nest, fluffing up or pecking in defence force if disturbed or removed. The hen will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe.[42] While brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a abiding temperature and humidity, also every bit turning the eggs regularly during the commencement part of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, owners may identify several artificial eggs in the nest. To discourage it, they may place the hen in an elevated muzzle with an open wire floor.

Skull of a three-week-sometime chicken. Here the opisthotic os appears in the occipital region, as in the adult Chelonian. bo = Basi-occipital, bt = Basi-temporal, eo = Opisthotic, f = Frontal, fm = Foramen magnum, fo = Fontanella, oc = Occipital condyle, op = Opisthotic, p = Parietal, pf = Post-frontal, sc = Sinus culvert in supra-occipital, so = Supra-occpital, sq = Squamosal, eight = Leave of vagus nerve.

Breeds artificially developed for egg product rarely go broody, and those that practice often stop part-way through the incubation. Nonetheless, other breeds, such every bit the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, do regularly get broody, and brand first-class mothers, not only for craven eggs only too for those of other species — even those with much smaller or larger eggs and different incubation periods, such every bit quail, pheasants, ducks, turkeys, or geese.

Hatching and early life

Fertile chicken eggs hatch at the end of the incubation period, about 21 days.[39] Evolution of the chick starts just when incubation begins, so all chicks hatch within a solar day or two of each other, despite perhaps being laid over a period of two weeks or and so. Earlier hatching, the hen tin can hear the chicks peeping inside the eggs, and volition gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shells. The chick begins by 'pipping'; pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt cease of the egg, usually on the upper side. The chick and then rests for some hours, arresting the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood supply from the membrane beneath the trounce (used earlier for breathing through the beat out). The chick and so enlarges the hole, gradually turning round as it goes, and eventually severing the edgeless finish of the shell completely to brand a hat. The chick crawls out of the remaining shell, and the wet down dries out in the warmth of the nest.

Hens usually remain on the nest for about 2 days later the beginning chick hatches, and during this time the newly hatched chicks feed by arresting the internal yolk sac. Some breeds sometimes start eating cracked eggs, which tin get habitual.[43] Hens fiercely guard their chicks, and brood them when necessary to keep them warm, at first often returning to the nest at night. She leads them to food and h2o and volition call them toward edible items, but seldom feeds them directly. She continues to intendance for them until they are several weeks old.

Defensive behaviour

Chickens may occasionally gang up on a weak or inexperienced predator. At least one credible study exists of a immature fox killed by hens.[44] [45] [46] A grouping of hens have been recorded in attacking a hawk that had entered their coop.[47]

If a chicken is threatened by predators, stress, or is sick, in that location is a chance that they will puff up their feathers.[42]

Reproduction

Sperm transfer occurs by cloacal contact between the male and female, in a maneuver known as the 'cloacal kiss'.[48] As with birds in general, reproduction is controlled past a neuroendocrine system, the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone-I neurons in the hypothalamus. Locally to the reproductive system itself, reproductive hormones such every bit estrogen, progesterone, gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) initiate and maintain sexual maturation changes. Over fourth dimension there is reproductive pass up, thought to be due to GnRH-I-N decline. Because there is pregnant inter-individual variability in egg-producing duration, information technology is believed to be possible to breed for farther extended useful lifetime in egg-layers.[49]

Embryology

(Video) Earliest gestation stages and claret circulation of a chicken embryo

Chicken embryos take long been used as model organisms to study developing embryos. Big numbers of embryos can be provided by commercial chicken farmers who sell fertilized eggs which can exist easily opened and used to observe the developing embryo. Equally important, embryologists can carry out experiments on such embryos, close the egg again and written report the effect afterward on. For example, many important discoveries in the area of limb development take been made using chicken embryos, such as the discovery of the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) and the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) by John W. Saunders.[l]

In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds "turned on" a chicken recessive cistron, talpid2, and plant that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, similar those found in ancient bird fossils. John Fallon, the overseer of the project, stated that chickens have "...retained the ability to make teeth, under certain weather condition... ."[51]

Chicks atop a picture of a genetic map of a chicken. The chicken genome has 39 pairs of chromosomes, whereas the human genome contains 23 pairs

The 1000. gallus genome has 39 pairs of chromosomes, whereas the human genome contains 23 pairs

Genetics and genomics

Given its eminent office in farming, meat production, but also research, the house chicken was the first bird genome to be sequenced.[52] At i.21 Gb, the chicken genome is considerably smaller than other vertebrate genomes, such as the human genome (iii Gb). The final cistron set contained 26,640 genes (including noncoding genes and pseudogenes), with a total of 19,119 poly peptide-coding genes in annotation release 103 (2017), a similar number of protein-coding genes as in the human genome.[53]

Physiology

Populations of chickens from high altitude regions like Tibet have special physiological adaptations that upshot in a higher hatching charge per unit in depression oxygen environments. When eggs are placed in a hypoxic environment, chicken embryos from these populations express much more hemoglobin than embryos from other chicken populations. This hemoglobin also has a greater affinity for oxygen, allowing hemoglobin to bind to oxygen more readily.[54] [55]

Pinopsins were originally discovered in the chicken pineal gland.[56]

Immunology

Although all avians appear to take lost TLR9, bogus immunity against bacterial pathogens has been induced in neonatal chicks past Taghavi et al 2008 using tailored oligodeoxynucleotides.[57]

Breeding

Origins

Galliformes, the social club of bird that chickens belong to, is directly linked to the survival of birds when all other dinosaurs went extinct. Water or ground-dwelling fowl, similar to modern partridges, survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed all tree-dwelling birds and dinosaurs.[58] Some of these evolved into the modernistic galliformes, of which domesticated chickens are a primary model. They are descended primarily from the cherry-red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and are scientifically classified as the same species.[59] Every bit such, domesticated chickens can and exercise freely interbreed with populations of ruddy junglefowl.[59] Subsequent hybridization of the domestic chicken with grey junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and light-green junglefowl occurred;[60] a cistron for xanthous peel, for case, was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the grey junglefowl (K. sonneratii).[61] In a study published in 2020, it was plant that chickens shared between 71% - 79% of their genome with carmine junglefowl, with the period of domestication dated to eight,000 years agone.[60]

Cherry junglefowl hen in India

The traditional view is that chickens were first domesticated for cockfighting in Asia, Africa, and Europe.[2] In the final decade, there have been a number of genetic studies to clarify the origins. According to one early study, a single domestication event of the ruddy junglefowl in what now is the country of Thailand gave rise to the modernistic craven with pocket-size transitions separating the modern breeds.[62] The red junglefowl, known as the bamboo fowl in many Southeast Asian languages, is well adapted to take advantage of the vast quantities of seed produced during the cease of the multi-decade bamboo seeding bicycle, to heave its own reproduction.[63] In domesticating the chicken, humans took advantage of this predisposition for prolific reproduction of the ruby-red junglefowl when exposed to large amounts of food.[64]

Exactly when and where the chicken was domesticated remains a controversial issue. Genomic studies estimate that the chicken was domesticated 8,000 years ago[sixty] in Southeast Asia and spread to China and Bharat 2000–3000 years later. Archaeological evidence supports domestic chickens in Southeast Asia well before 6000 BC, Cathay by 6000 BC and India by 2000 BC.[threescore] [65] [66] A landmark 2020 Nature report that fully sequenced 863 chickens across the globe suggests that all domestic chickens originate from a single domestication event of crimson junglefowl whose present-24-hour interval distribution is predominantly in southwestern Prc, northern Thailand and Myanmar. These domesticated chickens spread beyond Southeast and Southern asia where they interbred with local wild species of junglefowl, forming genetically and geographically distinct groups. Analysis of the most popular commercial breed shows that the White Leghorn breed possesses a mosaic of divergent ancestries inherited from subspecies of red junglefowl.[67] [68] [69]

Heart Eastern chicken remains get dorsum to a little before than 2000 BC in Syria; chickens went southward only in the 1st millennium BC. They reached Egypt for purposes of cockfighting about 1400 BC, and became widely bred only in Ptolemaic Arab republic of egypt (nigh 300 BC).[seventy] Phoenicians spread chickens along the Mediterranean coasts as far as Iberia. During the Hellenistic menstruum (quaternary–2nd centuries BC), in the Southern Levant, chickens began to be widely domesticated for food.[3] This change occurred at least 100 years before domestication of chickens spread to Europe.

Chickens reached Europe circa 800 BC.[71] Breeding increased nether the Roman Empire, and was reduced in the Middle Ages.[70] Genetic sequencing of craven basic from archaeological sites in Europe revealed that in the Loftier Center Ages chickens became less aggressive and began to lay eggs before in the convenance season.[72]

Three possible routes of introduction into Africa around the early get-go millennium Advertising could have been through the Egyptian Nile Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers, across the Sahara. The earliest known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africa and engagement dorsum to the middle of the outset millennium AD.[70]

Domestic chicken in the Americas before Western contact is even so an ongoing give-and-take, but blueish-egged chickens, found only in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American chickens.[70]

A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes it difficult to lay out a articulate map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better description and genetic assay of local breeds threatened by extinction may too help with inquiry into this area.[70]

South America

An unusual variety of craven that has its origins in S America is the Araucana, bred in southern Chile by the Mapuche people. Araucanas lay bluish-green eggs. Additionally, some Araucanas are tailless, and some have tufts of feathers around their ears. It has long been suggested that they pre-appointment the arrival of European chickens brought by the Spanish and are evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Pacific contacts between Asian or Pacific Oceanic peoples, especially the Polynesians, and S America. In 2007, an international team of researchers reported the results of their analysis of chicken basic found on the Arauco Peninsula in south-central Republic of chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were pre-Columbian, and Deoxyribonucleic acid analysis showed that they were related to prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia.[73] These results appeared to confirm that the chickens came from Polynesia and that there were transpacific contacts between Polynesia and South America earlier Columbus's inflow in the Americas.[74] [75]

However, a later on report looking at the aforementioned specimens concluded:

A published, manifestly pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Isle group with an uncommon haplogroup from Republic of indonesia, Japan, and China and may correspond a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further uncertainty on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require farther analyses of ancient Dna sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.[76]

The debate for and confronting a Polynesian origin for Southward American chickens continued with this 2014 paper and subsequent responses in PNAS.[77]

Use by humans

Farming

A former battery hen, 5 days after release. Note the pale comb – the comb may exist an indicator of health or vigor.[78]

More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually every bit a source of meat and eggs.[79] In the United states of america lone, more than viii billion chickens are slaughtered each yr for meat,[fourscore] and more than 300 million chickens are reared for egg production.[81]

The vast bulk of poultry are raised in factory farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the earth'southward poultry meat and 68 percentage of eggs are produced this way.[82] An alternative to intensive poultry farming is free-range farming.

Friction between these ii main methods has led to long-term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the environs, creates human health risks and is inhumane.[83] Advocates of intensive farming say that their highly efficient systems save country and food resource owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked after in state-of-the-fine art environmentally controlled facilities.[84]

Reared for meat

A commercial chicken firm with open sides raising broiler pullets for meat

Chickens farmed for meat are called broilers. Chickens volition naturally alive for 6 or more years, but broiler breeds typically accept less than six weeks to reach slaughter size.[85] A gratis range or organic broiler will usually be slaughtered at nearly 14 weeks of age.

Reared for eggs

Chickens farmed primarily for eggs are chosen layer hens. In total, the UK alone consumes more than 34 million eggs per day.[86] Some hen breeds can produce over 300 eggs per year, with "the highest authenticated rate of egg laying existence 371 eggs in 364 days".[87] After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen'south egg-laying ability starts to reject to the point where the flock is commercially unviable. Hens, peculiarly from bombardment cage systems, are sometimes infirm or have lost a significant corporeality of their feathers, and their life expectancy has been reduced from around seven years to less than two years.[88] In the Uk and Europe, laying hens are and so slaughtered and used in processed foods or sold as 'soup hens'.[88] In some other countries, flocks are sometimes strength moulted, rather than existence slaughtered, to re-invigorate egg-laying. This involves consummate withdrawal of nutrient (and sometimes h2o) for 7–14 days[89] or sufficiently long to cause a body weight loss of 25 to 35%,[ninety] or up to 28 days nether experimental conditions.[91] This stimulates the hen to lose her feathers, only also re-invigorates egg-production. Some flocks may exist force-moulted several times. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moulted in the Us.[92]

Equally pets

A 95-year-one-time woman from Havana, Cuba, with her pet rooster

Keeping chickens as pets became increasingly pop in the 2000s[93] among urban and suburban residents.[94] Many people obtain chickens for their egg product but oft proper noun them and treat them as any other pet similar cats or dogs. Chickens provide companionship and accept individual personalities. While many do not cuddle much, they will eat from one's hand, jump onto ane'due south lap, respond to and follow their handlers, every bit well as show affection.[95] [96]

Chickens are social, inquisitive, intelligent[97] birds, and many discover their behaviour entertaining.[98] Certain breeds, such every bit Silkies and many bantam varieties, are generally docile and are oftentimes recommended equally adept pets around children with disabilities.[99] Many people feed chickens in office with kitchen food scraps.

Lawn heritage chickens eating kitchen nutrient scraps.

Cockfighting

A cockfight is a contest held in a band called a cockpit between two cocks known as gamecocks. This term, denoting a cock kept for game, sport, pastime or entertainment, appears in 1646,[100] afterward "cock of the game" used by George Wilson in the earliest known book on the secular sport, The Commendation of Cocks and Cock Fighting of 1607. Gamecocks are non typical farm chickens. The cocks are specially bred and trained for increased stamina and strength. The comb and wattle are removed from a young gamecock considering, if left intact, they would be a disadvantage during a lucifer. This procedure is called dubbing. Sometimes the cocks are given drugs to increment their stamina or thicken their blood, which increases their chances of winning. Cockfighting is considered a traditional sporting result by some, and an instance of animate being cruelty by others and is therefore outlawed in about countries.[101] Ordinarily wagers are fabricated on the result of the match, with the survivor or last bird continuing alleged winner.

Chickens were originally used for cockfighting, a sport where two male chickens (cocks) fight each other until one dies or becomes badly injured. Cocks possess congenital aggression toward all other cocks to contest with females. Studies suggest that cockfights have existed even up to the Indus Valley Civilisation as a pastime.[102] Today it is commonly associated with religious worship, pastime, and gambling in Asian and some South American countries. While not all fights are to the death, most use metal spurs as a weapon attached higher up or beneath the chicken's own spur, which typically results in death in one or both cocks. If chickens are in practice, owners place gloves on the spurs to prevent injuries. Cockfighting has been banned in near western countries and debated by animate being rights activists for its brutality.

Artificial incubation

Incubation can occur artificially in machines that provide the correct, controlled environment for the developing chick.[103] [104] The boilerplate incubation period for chickens is 21 days merely the duration depends on the temperature and humidity in the incubator. Temperature regulation is the most critical factor for a successful hatch. Variations of more than than 1 °C (1.8 °F) from the optimum temperature of 37.5 °C (99.5 °F) volition reduce hatch rates. Humidity is also of import because the charge per unit at which eggs lose water by evaporation depends on the ambience relative humidity. Evaporation can be assessed by candling, to view the size of the air sac, or by measuring weight loss. Relative humidity should be increased to effectually seventy% in the last 3 days of incubation to proceed the membrane around the hatching chick from drying out afterwards the chick cracks the vanquish. Lower humidity is usual in the starting time 18 days to ensure acceptable evaporation. The position of the eggs in the incubator can besides influence hatch rates. For best results, eggs should be placed with the pointed ends down and turned regularly (at least three times per mean solar day) until i to three days before hatching. If the eggs aren't turned, the embryo inside may stick to the crush and may hatch with concrete defects. Adequate ventilation is necessary to provide the embryo with oxygen. Older eggs require increased ventilation.

Many commercial incubators are industrial-sized with shelves holding tens of thousands of eggs at a fourth dimension, with rotation of the eggs a fully automatic process. Home incubators are boxes belongings from 6 to 75 eggs; they are usually electrically powered, but in the past some were heated with an oil or alkane lamp.

Diseases and ailments

Chickens are susceptible to several parasites, including lice, mites, ticks, fleas, and intestinal worms, too equally other diseases. Despite the name, they are not afflicted by chickenpox, which is generally restricted to humans.[105]

Chickens can carry and transmit salmonella in their dander and carrion. In the Us, the Centers for Disease Command and Prevention advise against bringing them indoors or letting minor children handle them.[106] [107]

Some of the diseases that tin can affect chickens are shown below:

Name Mutual name Cause
Aspergillosis Aspergillus fungi
Avian influenza bird flu virus
Histomoniasis blackhead disease Histomonas meleagridis
Botulism paralysis Clostridium botulinum toxin
Cage layer fatigue mineral deficiency, lack of physical do
Campylobacteriosis tissue injury in the gut
Coccidiosis Coccidia
Colds virus
Ingather bound Archived 2010-10-26 at the Wayback Machine improper feeding
Dermanyssus gallinae red mite parasite
Egg binding oversized egg
Erysipelas Streptococcus leaner
Fat liver hemorrhagic syndrome high-energy food
Fowl cholera Pasteurella multocida
Fowlpox Fowlpox virus
Fowl typhoid bacteria
Avian infectious laryngotracheitis LT Gallid alphaherpesvirus 1
Gapeworm Syngamus trachea worms
Infectious bronchitis Infectious bronchitis virus
Infectious bursal disease Gumboro infectious bursal illness virus
Infectious coryza in chickens Avibacterium paragallinarum
Lymphoid leukosis Avian sarcoma leukosis virus
Marek's illness Gallid alphaherpesvirus 2
Moniliasis yeast infection
or thrush 		Candida fungi
Mycoplasma leaner
Newcastle disease Avian avulavirus 1
Necrotic enteritis Archived 2010-12-16 at the Wayback Automobile bacteria
Omphalitis Mushy chick affliction[108] leaner
Peritonitis[109] infection in belly from egg yolk
Psittacosis Chlamydia psittaci
Pullorum Salmonella bacteria
Scaly leg Knemidokoptes mutans
Squamous prison cell carcinoma cancer
Tibial dyschondroplasia speed growing
Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii
Ulcerative enteritis bacteria
Ulcerative pododermatitis bumblefoot leaner

History

An early domestication of chickens in Southeast Asia is probable, since the discussion for domestic craven (*manuk) is part of the reconstructed Proto-Austronesian language (encounter Austronesian languages). Chickens, together with dogs and pigs, were the domestic animals of the Lapita culture,[110] the outset Neolithic culture of Oceania.[111]

The first pictures of chickens in Europe are found on Corinthian pottery of the 7th century BC.[112] [113]

Chickens were spread past Polynesian seafarers and reached Easter Isle in the 12th century Ad, where they were the only domestic fauna, with the possible exception of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans). They were housed in extremely solid craven coops built from stone, which was showtime reported as such to Linton Palmer in 1868, who also "expressed his doubts most this".[114]

In culture

Abraxas seen with a chicken'south caput

The mythological basilisk or cockatrice is depicted equally a reptile-like animate being with the upper body of a rooster.[115] [116] Abraxas, a figure in Gnosticism, is portrayed in a similar fashion too.[117]

In Greek mythology, Alectryon was a young human being that Ares put as a guardian exterior his door to inform him if anybody came near while he was making dear to Aphrodite, who was married to Hephaestus, Ares' blood brother. Simply Alectryon cruel asleep while on guard, so Helios, the lord's day, saw the ii lovers and alerted Hephaestus. In anger over Alectryon's incompetence, Ares turned him into a rooster, a bird that always crows at dawn when the lord's day is near to ascension, still loyal to their promise to Ares.[118] [119] The rooster was thus one of Helios' sacred animals.[120]

Gallery

  • Rooster in the coat of arms of Laitila

  • A group of chicks

See also

  • Abnormal behaviour of birds in captivity
  • Battery Hen Welfare Trust, a United kingdom charity for laying hens
  • Craven equally nutrient
  • Chicken eyeglasses
  • Craven fat
  • Chicken hypnotism
  • Chicken or the egg
  • Craven manure
  • Chook raffle – a type of raffle where the prize is a craven.
  • Early feeding
  • Feral chicken
  • Gamebird hybrids – hybrids between chickens, peafowl, guineafowl and pheasants
  • Henopause
  • Hen and chicks, a type of plant
  • List of chicken breeds
  • Poularde
  • Rubber chicken
  • Sexual practice change in chickens
  • Symbolic chickens
  • "Tastes like craven"
  • Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep
  • Urban chicken keeping
  • "Why did the chicken cross the route?"

Roosters

  • Chicken laugh
  • Erect egg
  • Red Junglefowl
  • Rooster Flag (disambiguation)
  • Rooster of Barcelos

Explanatory notes

  1. ^ The surgical and chemic castration of chickens is at present illegal in some parts of the world.

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Further reading

  • Light-green-Armytage, Stephen (October 2000). Extraordinary Chickens. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN978-0-8109-3343-ix.
  • Smith, Page; Charles Daniel (April 2000). The Chicken Book. University of Georgia Press. ISBN978-0-8203-2213-1.
  • Andrew Lawler (2014). Why Did the Chicken Cross the World?: The Epic Saga of the Bird that Powers Civilization. Atria Books. ISBN978-1-4767-2989-3.

External links

  • Chickens at Curlie
  • Video: Chick hatching from egg

rodriguezconem1977.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken

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